Int. The other insertion pathways with potential applications in humans include (1) bioballistics, which requires further technical enhancement for use in humans (Fynan et al., 1993; Brouillette et al., 2016); (2) intradermal needleless administration of the DNA plasmid: in tests conducted with non-human primates, these intradermal needleless devices did not increase immunogenicity compared to conventional syringes (Rao et al., 2006); (3) intradermal tattoo, in which the DNA plasmid is delivered to the epidermal layer using thousands of injections; and (4) through the mucosa, which simulates the entry of pathogens by this route. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. The major microorganisms explored as biofactories are the bacterium E. coli, followed by the yeast S. cerevisiae; both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems are constantly evolving and competing to improve their properties and intensify as platforms of choice for the production of biopharmaceuticals (Chumnanpuen et al., 2016; Sanchez-Garcia et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.01.018, McGovern, P. E., Glusker, D. L., and Exner, L. J. Genetic ManipulationsApplications in Therapy. Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Epub 2015 Jun 16. doi: 10.1016/S0960-8524(02)00007-X. (2016). 37, 615636. In the manufacture of such vaccines, all genes that are not essential for replication are first eliminated from the virus. doi: 10.1093/femsle/fnw001, Mulat, D. G., Jacobi, H. F., Feilberg, A., Adamsen, A. P. S., Richnow, H.-H., and Nikolausz, M. (2016). doi: 10.1016/S0734-9750(01)00086-6, Sheldon, R. A. Nature 523, 208211. 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Such benefits are the product of the positive and multifunctional roles of mycorrhizal fungi in plant nutrition, pathogen protection, stress tolerance, and soil structure supply (Smith and Read, 2008). Lett. The participation of microorganisms in the generation of medical products or services involves four distinct aspects: (1) biocontrol of diseases, (2) production of vaccines, (3) production of antibiotics, and (4) production of biotherapeutics (hormones, biomaterials, and others). 276-277, 124. A study showed that SeNPs attach to the bacterial cell wall, causing irreversible damage to the membrane, thus achieving a remarkable synergistic antibacterial effect that inhibits MRSA (Huang X. et al., 2016). (2016). Nova 38, 957971. Int. The use of recombinant microbial cells has allowed large-scale production of a large number of products of pharmaceutical interest, such as hormones, anticoagulants, high-value proteins, antibodies or antigens, and others. (2017). Sci. Potentiometric microbial electrode. 107, 111116. They can also enhance the aroma of beverages and the quality of margarine and mayonnaise (Sharma et al., 2001). Microbial biosensors: a review. doi: 10.5935/0100-4042.20150094, Pires, A. L. R., and Moraes, A. M. (2015). If the miRNA is completely complementary to the target gene, then the mRNA can be cleaved. 20, 11011104. Alginate is a polysaccharide synthesized by several genera of brown algae and two genera of bacteria: Pseudomonas and Azotobacter (Hay et al., 2013; Maleki et al., 2016). A., Gharieb, M. M., Zaki, H. R., and Elguindy, N. M. (2016b). Arrows of the same color inside the bacterium signal the same pathway. Inactivated vaccines, which are classified as whole or fractionated, contain completely inactivated or fractionated pathogens or only antigenic components of these pathogens (including subunit vaccines, toxoid vaccines, carbohydrate vaccines, and conjugate vaccines). 7:1237. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01237, Brito, M. A., and Cordeiro, B. C. (2012). Amperometric detection of Cu2+ by yeast biosensors using flow injection analysis (FIA). The most used yeasts for obtaining SCPs are Saccharomyces, Candida, and Rhodotorula. A safe potential juice clarifying pectinase from Trichoderma viride EF-8 utilizing Egyptian onion skins. doi: 10.1002/cncr.23764. Bior. Util. Srivastava, R. K., Ichhpujani, R. I., Khare, S., Rai, A., and Chauhan, L. S. (2011). This expression induces antibody production and immunization. (2016). Jacob, F., Perrin, D., Sanchez, C., and Monod, J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0407921102, McIntosh, S., Zhang, Z., Palmer, J., Wong, H.-H., Doherty, W. O. S., and Vancov, T. (2016). Pharm. The American economic expansion brought on by the end of World War II and known as the Golden Age of Capitalism (Stephen et al., 1991), as well as the knowledge of microbial genetics that was emerging at that time (e.g., Zinder and Lederberg, 1952; Jacob et al., 1960; Ames and Martin, 1964; Holloway, 1969; Sussman, 1970; Bagdasarian and Timmis, 1982), stimulated the emergence of microorganism-based industrial processes, triggering modern Technological Microbiology. (2016). The mutualistic interaction between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Med. Secondly, they are used as factories for the production of food ingredients. An example is the potential presented by the introduction of the bacterium Wolbachia as an endosymbiont of the mosquito Aedes aegypti, which transmits diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, and the more recently detected Zika virus (Walker et al., 2011). 94, 3746. The expectation is that, in the future, at least 25% of all bioenergy can originate from biogas (Holm-Nielsen et al., 2009), and therefore, studies that seek to optimize the methanogenesis process or describe the structure of microbial communities have been encouraged (e.g., Ennouri et al., 2016; Mulat et al., 2016; Suksong et al., 2016). Microorganisms are the most biodiverse class, leading us to believe that the emergence and spread of new human and/or agricultural pathogens may shift from a current critical situation, aggravated by globalization, to a recurrent situation at various points in the future. (2016). Bioherbicides, however, have not been widely applied in agronomic and horticultural crops for weed management because they have a number of requirements, such as ideal humidity conditions, which diminish their effectiveness when compared to chemical herbicides. Sci. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3476(96)70389-X, Knuf, M., Kowalzik, F., and Kieninger, D. (2011). Biomaterials 27, 145151. Imp. Biol. Res. Bioanal. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. 627, 126140. Genetic engineering has also been important in the production of other therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, interferons, and human growth hormone, to treat a variety of human medical conditions. (2007). Metabolic engineering of a xylose-isomerase-expressing strain for rapid anaerobic xylose fermentation. doi: 10.1046/j.1472-765X.2002.01118.x, Popham, H. J. R., Nusawardani, T., and Bonning, B. C. (2016). Currently, however, beneficial microorganisms such as plant growth promoters and phytopathogen controllers are required by various agricultural crops, and many species are being used as biofactories of important pharmacological molecules. Eng. Other molecular tools, such as restriction enzymes and plasmids obtained from microorganisms, allow scientists to insert genes from humans or other organisms into microorganisms. (2016). Microbial Genetics. Bioprocess Eng. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2008.09.006, Rillig, M. C., Sosa-Hernndez, M. A., Roy, J., Aguilar-Trigueros, C. A., Vlyi, K., and Lehmann, A. (2016). Future challenges such as finding new ways to combat disease, reduce pollution and feed the world's population. (2014). Intell. In 1976, a thermostable DNA polymerase was isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus. Superbugthe so-called NDM-1. 7, 295ed8. Explain how microorganisms can be engineered to produce vaccines. doi: 10.2217/nnm-2016-0200, Carrero-Carrn, I., Trapero-Casas, J. L., Olivares-Garca, C., Monte, E., Hermosa, R., and Jimnez-Daz, R. M. (2016). The possibility of using microorganisms to obtain food, food additives, or even microbial biomass for food has reinvigorated the food-processing industry, which sees new possibilities for conventional foods, such as flavors, textures, and aromas, or even the discovery of new foods. These aspects will be discussed throughout this session. Other approved therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, in Safety of Biologics Therapy (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 141215. Biol. This production method is due to the unusual physiology of the cells as well as the ease of genetically manipulating them, but the understanding is that it is possible, by adding heterologous reactions, to synthesize 1,777 non-native products from E. coli, of which 279 have commercial applications. doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.003, Lei, Y., Chen, W., and Mulchandani, A. 136, 198202. (2010). doi: 10.2217/nnm.13.164, Velkov, T., Roberts, K. D., Thompson, P. E., and Li, J. (2008). doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2006.08.001, Tiquia, S. M., Wan, H. C., and Tam, N. F. Y. doi: 10.1080/09583157.2014.940847, Jozala, A. F., Geraldes, D. C., Tundisi, L. L., Feitosa, V. A., Breyer, C. A., Cardoso, S. L., et al. Efficient immobilization of mushroom tyrosinase utilizing whole cells from Agaricus bisporus and its application for degradation of bisphenol A. Crop Prot. Pasteur, L. (2002). Adv. Biosens. Hum. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088, Woese, C. R., Kandler, O., and Wheelis, M. L. (1990). In addition to bioethanol, other energy molecules such as biogas can be obtained from the microbial conversion of biomass. Removal of phenol from wastewater using membrane-immobilized enzymes Part II. Sci. Legal. 48, 5463. J. Toxicol. The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve strawberry production in coir substrate. Annu. Regulation of plants phosphate uptake in common mycorrhizal networks: role of intraradical fungal phosphate transporters. Generalized Transduction. Res. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-54596-2-1193. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, 3rd Edn. cultivated in whey (Hofvendahl and Hahn-Hgerdal, 2000). Ultimately, molecular biology applications are expected to be a mainstay in the manufacture of chemicals, energy, medical, consumer products, agriculture and food, industry, cosmetics and environmental technologies. Genes from pathogenic bacteria, such as Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, were recently introduced in E. coli to allow the efficient synthesis of 1,3-PDO from waste glycerol (Przystaowska et al., 2015). 16, 337353. These decisions must be made while considering the entire technological framework currently available, including transgenics and recombinant DNA, such that incentives exist so that microbiology research can be converted into products and services for society (Figure 5). 87, 410. Small scale production and characterization of xanthan gum synthesized by local isolates of Xanthomonas campestris. In addition, the BAC biofilm can also biodegrade the cyanotoxins and organic substances that can change the taste and odor of potable water (Brown and Lauderdale, 2006). Anal. J. Eng. biocontrol of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. It is also used as leather, textile and paper. Compounds involved in stress tolerance in yeasts, such as proline and trehalose, are promising for the development of resistant strains (Takagi and Shima, 2015). *Correspondence: Luciana C. Vitorino, luciana.vitorino@ifgoiano.edu.br, Chemical and Fuel Technological Microbiology, http://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2014/april, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Goiano Federal Institute, Gois, Brazil. Polym. Protein extracted from cultivated microbial biomass (single-cell protein SCP) can be used for protein supplementation in basic diets, replacing expensive conventional sources and alleviating the problem of protein shortages (Anupama and Ravindra, 2000). SCP has been widely used as a source of protein in animal and human food (Adedayo et al., 2011). When the media commented on the success of the human genome . 1: A thermal cycler (left) is used during a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). 35, 1721. Lett. Microbiol. Eventually, genetic engineering will be used to produce DNA vaccines and various gene therapies, as well as customized medicines for fighting cancer and other diseases. (2011). Selection of -lyase-producing yeasts improves aromatic thiol release and, consequently, the sensory properties of wines (Belda et al., 2016), whereas the selection of yeasts specializing in certain processes such as flocculation may improve the fermentation of special wines such as sparkling wines (Tofalo et al., 2016). Research efforts have also been directed at improving the purification of drinking water. "Microbial Enzymes: Roles and applications in industry" offers an essential update on the field of microbial biotechnology, and presents the latest information on a range of microbial. A., and Segal, S. J. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. doi: 10.1007/s00253-016-7324-z, Wang, L., Liu, S.-Y., Chen, H.-W., Xu, J., Chapon, M., Zhang, T., et al. Technol. Gene therapy 5. The PCR tests on the CSF and synovial fluid came back positive for the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacterium that causes Lyme disease. Glycerol production by microbial fermentation: a review. Res. Macromol. Dairy J. Wang, L., Cao, Z., Hou, L., Yin, L., Wang, D., Gao, Q., et al. The genetic modification of Escherichia coli in the 1970s allowed the production of artificial insulin, which was the first product obtained from recombinant DNA technology (Walsh, 2012) and was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1982 (Johnson, 1983). J. Membr. Pharmaceutical Industry 4. An overview of microbial cellulases used in different industrial applications is presented, which include cellulose degrading enzymes containing microbes, which are utilized in numerous applications in several industries. The most common method for obtaining this acid is using Lactobacillus spp. Natl. 4, 1320. Res. Two major factors that have been limiting real commercialization of biosurfactants in the past are firstly the limited structural variety and secondly the high production price due to low inherent productivities, small scale and/or a lack of process knowledge. (2008). (2011). doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2006.06.007, Takagi, H., and Shima, J. 63, 541556. Proc. Radecka, I. K., Guozhan, J., Hill, D. J., and Kowalczuk, M. M. (2016). 23, 353361. Microbiol. Figure 1. Utilisation of sugar beet bagasse for the biosynthesis of yeast SCP.
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